Open Veterinary Journal, (2026), Vol. 16(7): 4703-4709

Research Article

10.5455/OVJ.2026.v16.i7.50

Ultrastructural characterization of tick species infesting Sumatran tigers (Panthera tigris sumatrae) using scanning electron microscopy in West Sumatra, Indonesia

Lisa Hidayati^1*, Yoli Zulfanedi², Fitrine Ekawasti³, Bilan Diurai Viawan², Ima Fauziah³, Nanis Nurhidayah³, Rita Gusmiati¹, Nike Puspita Alwi¹ and Syukra Alhamda⁴

¹Department of Nursing and Public Health, Prima Nusantara Bukittinggi University, Bukittinggi, Indonesia

²Kinantan Wildlife and Cultural Park, Bukittinggi, Indonesia

³Research Center for Veterinary Science, National Research and Innovation Agency (NRIA), Cibinong, Indonesia

⁴Polytechnic of Health Padang, Ministry of Health, Indonesia

*Corresponding Author: Lisa Hidayati. Department of Nursing and Public Health, Prima Nusantara Bukittinggi University, Bukittinggi, Indonesia. Email: lisahidayatidnr [at] gmail.com

Submitted: 14/12/2025 Revised: 25/05/2026 Accepted: 13/06/2026 Published: 20/07/2026

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ABSTRACT

Background: The Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris) conservation meets the major constraint due to animal–human conflict and the presence of infectious diseases in West Sumatra. Ticks are important ectoparasites and vectors of numerous pathogens affecting wildlife, domestic animals, and humans. Tick infestation and infection have been neglected diseases in Sumatran tigers until now. However, studies on tick infestation in Sumatran tigers are limited.

Aim: This study aimed to characterize the ultrastructural morphology of ticks collected from conflict-associated Sumatran tigers using scanning electron microscopy (SEM).

Methods: Ticks were collected from conflict-associated Sumatran tigers. Morphological identification was conducted using stereomicroscopy and taxonomic keys. Selected specimens were prepared for SEM through fixation, dehydration, sputter-coating, and observation under a scanning electron microscope.

Results: SEM examination revealed detailed ultrastructural characteristics of the capitulum, basis capituli, hypostome, palpi, scutum, spiracular plate, festoons, coxae, and Haller’s organ. Distinct morphological features supported species identification and provided additional taxonomic characters not observable using conventional microscopy. Morphological identification revealed the following tick species on the Sumatran tiger, that is, Amblyomma javanense, Haemaphysalis bispinosa, Haemaphysalis wellingtoni, Amblyomma americanum, Rhipicephalus sanguineus, and Haemaphysalis leporispalustris.

Conclusion: SEM is a valuable tool for detailed characterization of tick morphology and contributes to understanding host–parasite interactions involving endangered wildlife species. The findings provide baseline information for future taxonomic, ecological, and epidemiological studies of tiger-associated ticks in Indonesia. There were six tick species in Sumatran tigers from Matur, Agam Regency, West Java, Indonesia. Further investigation into their role as the vector for infectious and zoonotic diseases in humans in the same area is needed.

Keywords: Sumatran tiger, Ticks, Vector–borne disease, Wildlife parasitology.

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Introduction

Ticks are parasitic species of the arthropod phylum and are classified as ectoparasites that attach themselves to the outside of the body and take nutrients from other living organisms, known as hosts (Hendrix and Robinson, 2006). The arthropod phylum consists of several subphyla, and ticks, such as mites, ticks, spiders, and scorpions, are included in the subphylum Chelicerata. In addition to being ectoparasites, ticks and other species within this subphylum act as disease agents in animals and humans because they can produce toxins, act as intermediate hosts for protozoa and helminths, and vectors or arthropods that transmit diseases such as bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens (Guglielmone et al., 2014).

Ticks suck the blood of vertebrates (McGinley et al., 2021). Their body structure consists of two parts: the front part, known as the cephalothorax (gnathosoma/prosoma), and the lower part, known as the abdomen (ophistosoma/idiosoma). However, no partition or gap exists between the 2 parts, as in arachnids or spiders. The front part of the tick’s body contains chelicerae and palps (sensory organs). The tick’s body also has an enathosoma/capitulum and four pairs of legs in adults, whereas nymphs have three pairs of legs (Paris et al., 2020). Zoonotic disease in Sumatran tigers caused by parasites. Parasitic diseases (zoonosis) in tigers can be transmitted to humans through arthropod bites (vector–borne disease). Ticks are one of the arthropods that can transmit parasitic diseases from tigers to humans (Linkie et al., 2008). Therefore, the identification of ticks is the best step to collect a database about the diversity of ticks in Indonesia. The data can be used to develop management policies for vector or tick control in Indonesia.

Based on the role of ticks in disease transmission, particularly in protected wildlife such as the Sumatran tiger, morphological data on the diversity of tick species that infest Sumatran tigers, especially in conflict with Sumatran tigers that enter residential areas, are needed. This research is crucial considering that ticks are infected with pathogens and have sucked the blood of conflicting Sumatran tigers and humans when they enter residential areas, given that some tick species require multiple hosts, including humans, in their life cycles (Changbunjong et al., 2025).

Research on tick diversity in Indonesia has been conducted since the early 20th century. However, specific research on the parasitic stages of ticks in tigers (Panthera tigris) has never been reported in Indonesia. Several studies of tick species found in wildlife in various countries, including one conducted by Kumar et al. (2018) in India, found one tick species in Sumatran tigers, Haemaphysalis (Kaiseriana) bispinosa Neumann (Kumar et al., 2018). Changbunjong et al. (2025) found that Rhipicephalus sanguineus infests Sumatran tigers in Thailand (Changbunjong et al., 2025).

The Sumatran tiger, P. tigris sumatrae, is the only surviving tiger subspecies in Indonesia and is categorized as critically endangered. Habitat fragmentation, poaching, and increasing human-wildlife conflicts continue to threaten its survival. Recent investigations in West Sumatra identified several tick species infesting conflict-associated Sumatran tigers, including Amblyomma javanense, H. bispinosa, and Haemaphysalis wellingtoni (Hidayati et al., 2024).

Although light microscopy remains the standard method for tick identification, SEM offers superior resolution and enables detailed visualization of external ultrastructures. Previous SEM studies on ixodid ticks demonstrated the importance of these structures in taxonomy and functional morphology (Ghosh and Misra, 2012).

However, researchers want to identify other tick species infesting Sumatran tigers in other areas of Indonesia, as data for reporting tick vector diversity across Indonesia. The identified tick species can then be used to predict the potential for disease transmission to humans, based on the literature. Agam Regency was chosen because of the large number of wild animal conflicts in West Sumatra, including Sumatran tigers that enter residential areas, thus increasing the risk of transmission of pathogens carried by tick vectors to humans.

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Materials and Methods

Study sites and animal

Thirty-one ticks were collected from the human-wildlife conflict area, reported by the community to the West Sumatra Province Natural Resources Conservation Agency, in 2024–2025. Direct collection was conducted from the skin of a Sumatran tiger.

The tiger was sedated using a combination of ketamine 100 mg/ml and xylazine 100 mg/ml with the antidote atipamazole hydrochloride. The ticks were individually placed in 1.5-ml tubes containing 70% ethanol and stored at 4°C until further analysis. All tick samples were transported to the Biomedical Laboratory of Prima Nusantara University, Bukittinggi, and the Kinantan Wildlife and Cultural Park laboratory, Bukittinggi, West Sumatra, for morphological analysis.

Morphological analysis

Tick specimens were initially examined under a stereomicroscope. Identification was performed using standard taxonomic keys based on external morphological characters including scutum, capitulum, festoons, spiracular plates, and coxal structures. Tick species were morphologically identified following the key identification made by Heyneman (1966); Hidayati et al. (2024); Bertone et al. (2023) and Yamaguti et al. (1971). An individual tick specimen was placed into an object glass and covered with a cover glass. Observations were made under a stereo microscope for a small-sized tick, while a magnifying glass loupe was used for the larger tick.

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

Preparation

A total of six ticks were randomly selected for SEM. Ectoparasites were then analyzed using a SEM. Preparation began by immersing the preserved samples in 70% ethanol in a 2.5% glutaraldehyde solution for 4 hours, followed by immersion in 2% tannic acid for 24 hours. The samples were washed twice using cacodylate buffer for 10 minutes each, then underwent a multistep dehydration process with 50% ethanol (twice for 10 minutes), 70% (twice for 10 minutes), 85% (20 minutes), 90% (20 minutes), and absolute ethanol (twice for 10 minutes). Subsequently, the samples were immersed in tert–butanol twice for 10 minutes each, frozen in a freezer for 24 hours, and dried with a vacuum dryer until the solvent completely evaporated. The dried specimen was attached to a copper stub specimen that had been coated with carbon tape, and the coating process was carried out using an ion coater with a palladium–gold layer for 135 seconds at a current of 18 mA until a pressure of 4 × 10-¹ Pa was reached.

a. SEM observation and detection of morphological identification

After the preparation is complete, the stub specimen is placed in the holder. The SEM vent is opened to allow air to enter, and the machine door is opened. The holder is then mounted on the specimen table, the door is closed again, and a vacuum is created by performing an evacuation process. Scanning electrons were performed using adjusted voltage and magnification settings to obtain high-resolution images of the ectoparasite surface.

Data analysis

The collected data were tabulated in Microsoft Excel and descriptively analyzed.

Ethical approval

All procedures conducted in this study have been approved by the Animal Ethics Committee of the National Research and Innovation Agency (Number: 175/KE.02/SK/08/2025).

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Results

According to this study, we found six tick species from the Sumatran tiger in the human-wildlife conflict area in Matur, Agam Regency, West Sumatra. Those ticks are H. leporispalustris, H. bispinosa, H. wellingtoni, A. javanense, Rhipicephalus microplus, and A. americanum.

The scanning electron microscope confirmed the morphological features of each species as described below:

Haemaphysalis leporispalustris (Rabbit tick)

The mouthparts of H. leporispalustris, or rabbit tick, are long, with a basis capituli, second segment of palpi not laterally produced, conical and short palps, and posterior anal groove. It lacks eyes and has palpi that are wider than they are long. The scutum lacks ornamentation in both males and females. The base of its capitulum is rectangular rather than hexagonal.

The adult rabbit tick is approximately 1 mm in length and contains festoons or wrinkles at the body base. Haemaphysalis leporispalustris has festoons, lacks a point/spur above the last segment of the palps, and has very short palps with pointed sides (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Haemaphysalis leporispalustris has festoons, lacking a point/spur above the last segment of the palps, and very short palps with pointed sides. Anal groove (A), festoons (B), capitulum (C), and spiracular plate (D).

Haemaphysalis bispinosa

Haemaphysalis bispinosa males had a short cervical groove and lateral grooves starting from the center of the idiosome to the posterior, evenly distributed and numerous punctations, a genital aperture parallel to coxa II, and an anal opening opposite the oval-shaped spiracles. In addition, the ticks had long and thick legs as well as dentition (4/4) with 8 teeth per file. Haemaphysalis bispinosa has a posterior anal groove, festoons, a triangular basis capitulum, and a spiracular plate with tail-like protrusion. Haemaphysalis bispinosa has an inornate scutum and festoons (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Haemaphysalis bispinosa has a posterior anal groove, festoons, a triangular basis capitulum, and a spiracular plate with a tail-like protrusion. H. bispinosa has an inornate scutum and festoons. Anal groove (A), festoons (B), capitulum (C), and spiracular plate (D).

Haemaphysalis wellingtoni

The males of H. wellingtoni had medium-sized blunt cornuae, a small, blunt, posteronternally directed spur on the dorsal surface of the palpal article III, lateral grooves on the scutum, and 4/4 dentition throughout most of the hypostome. Based on the SEM analysis results, H. wellingtoni has lateral grooves on the scutum, a rectangular basis capitulum, an oval-shaped spiracular plate, an anal groove behind the anus (indistinct), festoons, and a second segment of palps laterally produced (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Haemaphysalis wellingtoni has lateral grooves on the scutum, a rectangular basis capitulum, an oval-shaped spiracular plate, an anal groove behind the anus (indistinct), festoons, and a second segment of palps laterally produced. Anal groove (A), festoons (B), capitulum (C), and spiracular plate (D).

Amblyomma javanense

Amblyomma javanense is characterized by a small and deep porose area, a wide anterior and narrow posterior palp, with a longer second segment than the third; dark auburn and heart-shaped scutum with no enamel; and small and flat eyes with only one trace. Coxa I had two extremely wide, blunt, well-separated spurs, and coxa II, III, and IV each had an extremely wide, blunt, rounded spur. The basis capituli was rectangular. Anal groove behind the anus; comma-shaped peritreme, festoons being a particularly distinctive feature, and long basis capituli (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Rectangular basic capitula. Anal groove behind the anus; comma-shaped peritreme, festoons being a particularly distinctive feature, and long basis capitulum. Anal groove (A), festoons (B), capitulum (C), and spiracular plate (D).

Rhipicephalus sanguineus

Morphologically, R. sanguineus has an elongated oval-shaped body consisting of two parts, namely, the capitulum (gnathosoma) or cephalothorax (head and thorax fused) and the idiosoma. The idiosoma anterior part has a scutum, or a chitin shield, which is a hard structure. The capitulum is hexagonal and bears rows of teeth or hypostomes with hooks to strengthen the bite. The capitulum and scutum are reddish brown. The idiosoma is light brown.

Rhipicephalus sanguineus has hexagonal capituli. The triangular anal groove and anal curve are clear and located posterior to the anus. The spiracular plate is long, narrow, and coma-shaped. The mouthparts are very long with a capitulum at the base. The palpi length of the second segment is equal to its width and does not laterally project. The base of the capitulum projects laterally. It has a festoon and coxa (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. Rhipicephalus sanguineus has hexagonal capituli. Anal groove (A), festoons (B), capitulum (C), and spiracular plate (D).

Amblyomma americanum

Amblyomma americanum, commonly known as the lone star tick, is a three-host tick endemic to North America. It is characterized by a long hypostome and a distinctive light-colored spot (silver-white spot) on the dorsal scutum of the female. Amblyomma americanum has a long capitulum or mouthpart with a toothed hypostome and a rectangular base on the capitulum. Small and rectangular festoons on the posterior margin of the brain. The anal groove is posterior to the anus (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. Amblyomma americanum has a long capitulum or mouthpart with a toothed hypostome and a rectangular based on capitulum. Small and rectangular festoons on the posterior margin of the brain. The anal groove is posterior to the anus. Anal groove (A), festoons (B), capitulum (C), and spiracular plate (D).

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Discussion

Haemaphysalis leporispalustris has been described from marsh rabbit (Sylvilagus palustris) in the USA by Packard (1869) (Guglielmone et al., 2014). In Mexico, H. leporispalustris was found on rabbits (Lepus sp.) from 2 localities of Hidalgo and Veracruz (Sánchez-montes et al., 2020). The bird species Arremon semitorquatus, Corythopis delalandi, Fluvicola nengeta, Troglodytes musculus, and Volatinia jacarina were recorded as hosts for H. leporispalustris for the first time in South America, and Turdus rufiventris represented a new record for Brazil (Zeringóta et al., 2016).

Haemaphysalis ticks are small, eyeless, inornate (unornamented) ticks known for their distinctively flared, triangular palpal segment II that sticks out sideways, though some, like H. inermis, lack this, and they have short mouthparts, festoons (indentations on the body edge), and a single spur on coxa I, acting as three-host ticks on birds/mammals (Kumar et al., 2018). Key features include small size, lack of eyes, festoons, and prominent palpal projections, making them important disease vectors. Among the 3 newly detected Haemaphysalis species in Indonesia, Sahara et al. (2019) reported that tick infestation on cattle in Indonesia consists of two genera and three species, namely, Rhipicephalus microplus, H. bispinosa, and Rhipicephalus pilans (Sahara et al., 2019). Haemaphysalis bispinosa is of particular interest as it has long been considered an exotic species in Southeast Asia but is native to India (Kumar et al., 2018). Although this is the first official report of H. bispinosa from Panthera tigris sumatrae (Hidayati et al., 2024), historical specimens held in Java, especially cattle, indicate that this species was present in Indonesia (Winaruddin, 2014; Sahara et al., 2023).

Kazim et al. (2025) reported the multiple life stages of H. wellingtoni ticks from the Chinese goose (Anser cygnoides) in Peninsular Malaysia. The ticks were found infesting the folds of the beak and hump area. The identification of all H. wellingtoni ticks in adult males was based on the presence of several distinctive features (Kazim et al., 2025).

The anal curve of R. sanguineus is clear and posterior to the anus. The mouthparts are very long with a capitulum at the base. The palpi length of the second segment is equal to its width and does not laterally project. The capitulum base projects laterally and has a festoon and a coxa. The front legs have the same gap (Estrada-Pena and Mihalca, 2017). In North Sulawesi, Indonesia, the dominant R. sanguineus ticks were caught from local dogs by residents (Tahulending and Jane Maria, 2024). Research in Southeast Asia found that the Rhipicephalus species is highly adaptable to human habitation (Tan et al., 2021), but in this study, R. sanguineus was found in the conflict Sumatran Tiger.

The morphology observed was generally consistent with descriptions reported for other ixodid ticks examined using SEM. Features such as hypostomal dentition, spiracular plates, and Haller’s organ have previously been considered important taxonomic markers in the genus Amblyomma (Ghosh and Misra, 2012; Barbieri et al., 2013). The presence of A. javanense is particularly noteworthy because this species has frequently been associated with wild mammals in Southeast Asia and has been reported from Sumatran tigers in West Sumatra (Hidayati et al., 2026).

Amblyomma americanum is also known as the lone star tick because its scutum has a white spot on its posterior edge (Tan et al., 2019). This tick is found in southern Illinois, Missouri, Texas, and southern Brazil. This tick can attack various birds, mammals, and humans (Supriyono et al., 2019). LSTs have 3 types of animal hosts, but the same animal can be a host for all stages. The female lays 1,000–8,000 eggs. Larvae hatch in 23–117 days, attach to the host, suck blood in 3–9 days, and fall. Larvae need time to become the nymph stage, which is 8–26 days, and nymphs suck blood in 3–8 days, fall, and take time to become adults around 13–46 days. Adults attach and suck blood on a new host for 9–24 days and then fall to lay eggs. Larvae that do not feed at all can live for up to 279 days, nymphs that do not feed at all can live for 476 days, and adults that do not feed at all can live for 430 days (Stafford and Kirby, 2004).

Amblyomma javanense has a very broad distribution. At the western end of its range, A. javanense is found in Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, and eastward through Myanmar, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam, the Philippines, and Southern China Kwak et al. (2018). The female specimens were distinguished from other Amblyomma ticks in Southeast Asia by a combination of the presence of eyes, an inornate scutum, 4/4 dentition along the hypostome, and coxae II and III, each with an extremely wide, blunt, rounded spur, and extremely small porose areas (Jabin et al., 2019).

From a conservation perspective, understanding tick morphology and diversity is important because ectoparasites may serve as vectors of zoonotic pathogens. Recent molecular studies detected Rickettsia spp. and Anaplasma spp. in ticks collected from conflict-associated Sumatran tigers in West Sumatra, highlighting the need for integrated wildlife disease surveillance programs (Hidayati et al., 2026).

The study was limited by the relatively small number of specimens and the absence of molecular confirmation of species identity. Future investigations should combine SEM, molecular taxonomy, and pathogen screening to better understand the ecological significance of tiger-associated ticks.

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Conclusion

SEM successfully revealed detailed ultrastructural features of ticks infesting Sumatran tigers in Matur, Agam Regency, West Sumatra. Morphological characteristics provided valuable taxonomic information and contributed to a better understanding of host-parasite interactions in this endangered species. This study successfully found six tick species, including A. javanense, H. bispinosa, H. wellingtoni, A. americanum, R. sanguineus, and H. leporispalustris, from rescued Sumatran tigers in Agam Regency, West Sumatra, Indonesia. This data is useful as the basis for arranging recommendations for disease prevention to support the Sumatran tiger’s conservation program conducted by the Indonesian Government. Future studies integrating molecular identification and pathogen detection are recommended to support wildlife conservation and One Health surveillance programs.

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Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the Ministry of Research and Technology of Higher Education, Republic of Indonesia, for financially funding this study through the research publication support program (Grant Number: 279/C/C2/KPT/2025) for Lisa Hidayati, S.KM., M.Si. We also thank the Directorate of Natural Resources and Ecology, the Ministry of Forestry, for granting permission to access the samples with access number 136-2025. We thank all staff and keepers of Kinantan Wildlife and Cultural Park, Bukittinggi, West Sumatra, who helped to handle the Sumatran tigers during the sampling period.

Funding

Publication assistance program in reputable journals, the Ministry of Research and Technology of Higher Education, Republic of Indonesia.

Author’s contribution

LH and YZ developed the design and concept. LH, YZ, FE, BDV, IF, RG, NPA, and NN contributed to data analysis and interpretation. LH, YZ, FE, RG, and NPA contributed to drafting the manuscript. LH, YZ, FE, RG, and NPA contributed to the manuscript’s critical revision. LH and FE contributed to the statistical analysis. LH, YZ, BDV, IF, and NN contributed to the administration and technical or material support. FE contributed to supervision. LH, YZ, FE, BDV, IF, RG, NPA, and NN contributed to the final approval of this study.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

Data availability

All data are provided in the revised manuscript.

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